VII The age of the Universe   While the development of the theory has been mostly abstract with no application to observation, the age of the universe calculations offers some correspondence to observation.  The development of the method determining the age of the universe also lends itself to a more complete description of the model. Additionally, since the age of the universe is fundamental to any application of the theory, it is included in this theoretical development section, rather than the Application section of this work.   The age of the Universe is based on the rate of expansion of the Universe. By “running the clock backwards” it is possible to determine when everything began.  If the rate of expansion is assumed to be linear, the age of the universe is about 15 billion years (plus or minus).  If the expansion were faster in the past, as proposed by this model, then the age of the Universe in Absolute measures of time would be less.    As mentioned earlier, there are two measures of time and the cosmological red shift is associated with absolute measures since the derivation is historically determined.  The red shift is determined in this model by the difference in the absolute velocity of the universe along the unobserved dimension.    Hubbell’s Constant   Hubbell’s Constant is a measure of the observed cosmological red shift of galaxies with respect to distance. The further the galaxy, the “redder” it appears.   While there are a number of varying measures for the rate of expansion, it will be assumed in this model that the observed rate of expansion is 65kilometers/sec per million parsecs of distance, plus or minus.  If a galaxy is 1 million parsecs away, it will be perceived as moving away from our location at 65 kilometers per second.  (In the proposed model this radial expanson is actually along the unobserved dimension).   From a theoretical perspective, the traditional units describing the expansion is undesirable, and a consistent set of units will be used based upon the meter and second.  Translating Ho to meter second set of units results in   Ho = 65 kilometers/sec per million parsecs  VII-1 Ho = 2.1 m/s / meter x 10^(-18)       VII-2   Utilizing the speed of light as an expression between distance and time, the above rate of expansion can be translated to a rate of expansion per second of time separating points.   Ho = 6.3 m/s per sec x 10^(-10)      VII-3   Age of the Universe – The Traditional constant rate of expansion   The simplest estimate determining the age of the universe is to assume that Hubbell’ constant is constant, then “run the clock backwards” to determine when all the points in space-time end up at “one point”.    The time it takes for a point one meter away to travel back one meter based upon the observed rate of motion corresponds to the time it would take for all points in space-time to end up at “one” location.  This is T = 1/H0 = To = Age of Universe which in this case equals 15 billion years.    Problems with a linear rate of expansion   This constant rate of expansion is an unlikely model to determine the age of the universe for at least two fundamental reasons.  First the rate of expansion had to be greater in the past to avoid a gravitational collapse for a finite sized universe.  This would reduce the age of the universe.  Also there is something not quite right with a model that has everything starting from “one point”.  How is there a transformation of one point made to create the entire universe?    How well do we know the velocity and distance measures associated with Galaxies?   The variation of the distance and velocity relationship shown in figure 21 is radically different from a linear relationship, other than for relationships relatively close to the observer.  Such a radical departure would initially appear to represent a problem for the theory were it not for the fact that distance measures are extremely difficult to determine.   The maximum distance that a direct physical measure of distance can be made is about   7 million parsecs using spectroscopic parallax  . ( Information on maximum distance measures using spectroscopic parallax is from Modern Astrophysics, by Bradley W., Carroll and Dale A. Ostlie 1996; presumably this distance has increased somewhat since this publication).  This represents a look back time of about 23 million years.  Any assumption that expansion rates are constant based upon this limited means of determining distance is a rather extreme extrapolation.  If a 15-billon light year distance is represented by 1 meter, it is like stating one knows distance relationships along the meter stick based upon measures established with in the first 1.5 millimeters of the meter stick.   Cepheid variable stars and type 1a supernovas have extended this distance measure but it does so at the assumption that the effect of gravity is constant.  In the proposed model this is not the case.  For example, less mass would be required to reach the Chandrasekhar limit required for a type 1a supernova and this would decrease the time it takes for the supernova to react, both due to the decreased size, and due to the faster rate events occurred in the past, according to the proposed model. This will be a topic in a separate paper that addresses the observed decreasing intervals of time associated with the light curve of high red shift type 1a supernovas.     Another assumption that permeates distance estimates is that the red shifts observed from distant galaxies are only the result of a cosmological expansion.  Typically the actual motion or “normal” velocity is assumed to be so small that it can be ignored. The only red shift observed is that which is due to cosmological expansion.  This simplifying assumption allows the red shift to correlate to an expansion velocity, which then allows one to establish an expansion rate and a distance indication.     The proposed model allows older celestial objects to have much higher latent or normal velocities.  The reason for no local observation of galaxies moving at such high velocities is that the expansion of space has “drawn off” the kinetic energy of these fast moving galaxies. Galaxies with red shifts indicating a universe at least 13 billion years old are actually moving away from us at an extreme velocity and it is the combined effect of real radial motion combined with the cosmological red shift that results in these “high” red shifts.  This physical model will be used to explain why the observed image size of radio galaxies or quasars does not conform to expected size based upon red shift.  (Low red shift radio galaxies are “too big” and high red shift galaxies are “too small”).   The age of the Universe – Uniform expansion model   If the standard linear model yields a present age of the universe to be 15 billion years old, the uniform expansion model yields an estimated distance/age that is about 2/3 rd’s that as indicate in Figure 29.    Age Accuracy   Note that due to the age of the universe, the observation of galaxies close to our location (corresponding to a proportional age of 0.8 to 1 on the graph above), the slope is fairly flat, according to the proposed model.  The flatness results in some difficulty determining with any accuracy the age of the universe; minor variations in the distance measures established within an observation region dating from now to a proportional age of .8 results in significant variation in the age of the universe.   Conjecture, Three dimensional space is moving really fast   The ratio of times equations describes how the velocity of galaxies changes along the unobserved dimension.   It is the difference between these absolute velocities that is responsible for the cosmological red shift.    VA1 –VA2 = change in velocity = cause for Doppler shift.         VII-8   The ratio of times equations gives a proportional change, not a differential.   VA2/ VA1 =  (T1/T2) ^(1/3)  Eq III-9 VII-9   If it were possible to determine the actual motion along the unobserved dimension then it would be possible to establish the differential velocity that would allow an age determination. This idea leads to another conjecture; the speed of light is geometrically tied or established by the motion in the unobserved dimension.   Inertial explanation for E = Mcc   If the speed that a photon moved was the result of three-dimensional space moving along the unobserved dimension according to some basic geometric relationships, some interesting unifying properties can be realized. For example, if the speed of light was described as being the square root of two divided by 2, times the Absolute Velocity along the unobserved dimension,  the following is realized.   ((2)^(1/2))/2, = sq2 /2 VII-10 VA2 = the Absolute velocity of three-dimensional space along the unobserved dimension VII-11 Speed of light =c =  sq2 /2 times VA2 VII-12 E = Mcc = 1/2M(VA2)^2 = standard Kinetic Energy expression VII-13   The “intrinsic” energy Einstein associated with matter becomes expressed as kinetic energy.  If the mass of an object were some spatial relationship, then the orientation of that spatial relationship could result in different manifestations of energy that would be associated with fundamental forces.  This topic will be discussed in more detail in another paper that attempts to unify the fundamental forces under one model.   The assigning the speed of light to a value determined by multiplying the Absolute velocity by the square root of two divided by two may seem arbitrary and somewhat convenient but this is not entirely the case.  It is establishing a geometric structure to space-time and the “stuff” in it.  It also is consistent with the light clock used in section V of this work describing Time.   Age of Universe assuming unifying conjecture   If the speed of light conjecture is utilized, the present absolute velocity along the unobserved dimension is the square root of two times the speed of light.   VA2 = c x 2^(1/2) = 1.414c              VII-14   If it is assumed that Hubbell’s “constant” is valid to an astronomical distance back in time to 23 million years ago (where “direct” measures are valid), the following relationship results.   To = present age of universe                                   VII-15 VAu/ VA1 =  (T1/To) ^(1/3)  =  ((Tu-23 million years)/To) ^(1/3)             Eq III-9 VII-16 (VAu and Tu are used instead of VA2 and T2 to indicate the present age of universe)   The above relationship will yield a proportional velocity description that is dependant upon the Age of the Universe, Tu.  The Difference between the present and the past velocity along the unobserved dimension per the distance between the observer and the distant object results in Hubbell’s “Constant”.    (VA1-VA2)/Distance            = Change in velocity associated with red shift/distance to object = Hubbell’s “constant”        VII-17   If Tu = 10 Billion years ( 10^9).                                VII-18 VA2/ VA1 =  ((10 – 0.023)/10) ^(1/3)         = 0.99923                  Eq III-9 VII-19 VA1 = 1.0007678 VA2                                                                    VII-20 VA1-VA2 =0.0007678VA2                                                             VII-21 VA2 = 1.414c                                                                                                            VII-22 VA1-VA2 = 1.414c x 0.0007678 = 352,700 meters/sec per 23 million light years = 1.49 m/s per meter x 10^-18                                                                    VII-23 A theoretical model predicting Hubbell’s constant is fairly close to that observed,         Ho = 2.1 m/s / meter x 10^(-18)          VII-2 VII-24   A minor change in either the age of the universe, or the locally determined velocity distance relationship of Hubbell’s “constant” could be made to improve the correlation. To = 9   Ho =1.66  m/s per meter x 10^-18 VII-25 To = 8 Ho =1.86                    VII-26 To = 7             Ho = 2.13                   VII-27   If the distance velocity relationship is accurate to a look back distance of 23 million years, than the age of the universe is a little more than 7 billion years in terms of Absolute measures of time.   As noted earlier, the prediction of age of universe with only local measures represents extreme extrapolation.  If the velocity measures were to be associated with slightly further distances a better fit can also be obtained.     To = 10,  if the look back distance is 30 million years instead of 23 million, the following theoretical Ho is predicted.   VA2/ VA1 =  ((10 – 0.030)/10) ^(1/3)        = 0.99923                  VII-28 Ho = 1.944 x 10^-18 m/s per meter            VII-29   The “best guess” as to the age of the Universe is that of something a little more than 7 billion years, about half of what is currently popularly accepted. It will take a number of other analyses to justify any confidence in such a radical proposal.  But the very fact that the model is even in the ballpark is remarkable.   Is a 7 Billion year old Universe Possible?   There already are some problems associated with a 13 to 15 billion year old universe in regards to the age of some globular clusters.  The ages of globular clusters can be estimated by the divergent point where stars within the cluster rapidly expand, an event associated with the end of a stars life.  Reducing the age of the universe so radically initially seems to compound the problem.  There is also the problem of having at least one generation of stars live a lifetime before our solar system was formed.  With our solar system about 5 billion years old, based upon radioactive dating, it leaves only 2 billion years for a star to live an entire lifetime and then supernova, resulting in the production of the heavy elements, such as gold, which are found in our solar system. This very short lifetime for a star initially appears unlikely.   These problems, as well as a few others, resolve when the increased effect of gravity in the past is properly accounted for.  These topics will be addressed in the application section of this work.